Teaching How-to: Chapter 3.3: Leading a Class Session

Welcoming Students into Conversation

As the instructor, your role is to encourage students to engage with each other as well as the content and activities. You can start by creating an inviting environment where students feel comfortable sharing and participating.

One way to do this is by connecting the session materials to something that happened on campus or the outside world, making the content feel relevant. If you conducted a pre-class survey at the beginning of the semester, connect the session material to something you picked up there. 

Asking students for their opinions on the session’s content can also generate discussion. Keep them involved by actively listening, asking thoughtful questions, highlighting insightful comments, and encouraging deeper analysis. 

For lab sections, review sessions, or office hours, circulate the room to check in with students while they work. Prompt them to walk you through their thought process, predict outcomes, or discuss challenges they’re facing. See the next section for more on asking effective questions. 

Here are some other strategies for creating a welcoming discussion environment: 

Avoid Jargon

Define basic terms, especially in introductory courses. It’s easy to assume students understand terminology that might be unfamiliar to them; make sure they feel comfortable asking for clarification if needed. This goes hand-in-hand with demystifying the hidden curriculum. 

Present Material in Different Ways

Repetition can aid retention, but varying your approach ensures accessibility for a wider range of learners. Think about the different formats you can use to present material, such as visual aids, analogies, or interactive demonstrations. Review UDL for more ideas about how to present material in diversified formats. You might also want to explore Harvard’s Instructional Moves resource, “Presenting Material in Multiple Ways,” for inspiration. 

Asking Good Questions

Asking questions is key to effective teaching as a TF or PTAI, regardless of class format—whether you’re facilitating a discussion section, helping students work through problems one-on-one in office hours, guiding lab work, or leading a recitation. Well-crafted questions encourage critical thinking, keep students engaged, and help assess where they are in their understanding.

Formulating good questions is more challenging than it seems. It requires a deep understanding of the course and insight into how students might approach its subject matter. Actively listening to students during lecture and discussions can provide cues for developing meaningful questions.

Active Listening

Active listening involves giving a speaker your full attention, withholding judgement, seeking clarification when needed, and pausing to process before responding or asking questions. Taking written notes can help you remember students’ comments and questions without interrupting. Sometimes, repeating an important thought or rephrasing it for the speaker can help them feel heard while giving them the opportunity to clarify if they feel their thought was misinterpreted. 

The goal of active listening is to make sure you give students your undivided attention and to protect and respect their speaking space. Some of the principles of active learning may already be a part of your group norms (see Ch. 2.2, “Logistics Before the First Day” for guidance on setting group norms). When you model this in class for your students, it signals that their input is valued.

Engaging in active listening can also inspire strong discussion questions. If you need additional ideas, refer to the question types below. 

What Makes a Good Question?

Effective discussion questions go beyond basic recall or summarization—they challenge students to think critically and come up with thoughtful answers. You should consider how each question aligns with your objectives for the session or course and prompts deeper engagement with the material. Coming up with these questions can be difficult on the spot, so if you’re new to teaching or the subject matter, take time to prepare in advance. Having a list of pre-planned questions is not only acceptable, but encouraged. 

In a lab setting, for example, ask students to predict experimental results, reflect on their procedures, or explain unexpected outcomes to help them understand the scientific process. 

In problem-solving sessions, ask students to explain their reasoning, compare alternative solutions, or explore different problem-solving strategies to enhance critical thinking and encourage independent learning. 

In a literature course, come prepared with questions that guide students toward the themes and critical thinking you want them to explore in relation to a particular text or theory.

Not all questions are equally effective in generating discussion. Yes/no or factual questions can be useful for checking comprehension, but deeper engagement often requires open-ended prompts. As you prepare your discussion-driven questions, keep the following considerations in mind: 

Types of Questions That Limit Discussion:

These questions usually have straightforward answers, don’t invite exploration, or limit engagement. They tend to shut down conversation rather than open it up.

• Yes/No: “Are the words ‘charity’ and ‘clarity’ etymologically related?” “Is this equation balanced?”
• Factual: “What is the only U.S. state with a unicameral legislature?”
• Multiple: “What are some of the songs by the Beatles, and who wrote each one?”
• Elliptical: “So, how about those Red Sox?”
• Leading: “I think Ulysses is overrated—don’t you?”
• Tugging: “Who can give me one more word to describe Tijuana?”
• Guessing: “Why do you think Mission Impossible is so popular when it’s a terrible movie?” 

Types of Questions That Inspire Discussion:

These questions encourage deeper thinking, personal connection, and multiple perspectives, which make them effective for sparking discussion.

• Analytic: “How do you explain the popularity of reality TV shows?”
• Evaluative: “What do you think of the statement: ‘Van Halen was far superior with David Lee Roth as lead singer’?”
• Compare/Contrast: “How are ale and lager different?”
• Causal: “What connection, if any, exists between smoking and lung cancer?” “Why does increasing the temperature speed up this reaction?”
• Descriptive: “How would you describe a penguin?” “Based on what we’ve learned, how would you explain the process of cell division?”
• Personalized: “What would you say to someone who believes that without God, all is permitted?”

Using Questions to Assess Student Knowledge

Think about what level of knowledge your questions require from students and how they align with Bloom’s Taxonomy. Begin and conclude your session with higher-order thinking questions to get students excited and ready to talk. Throughout the session, incorporate lower-stakes questions to help students build their way up to more complex inquiries. If you know the question is intentionally simple, communicate that to students to avoid the perception of a “trap.”

Give Students Time to Answer

Allow students time to reflect before intervening in moments of silence; jumping in too quickly takes away the opportunity for reflection. Remember that while you already know the answer, this silence indicates that students are taking time to think. A good rule of thumb is to slowly count to five in your head before venturing an idea or suggested answer to the question. These five seconds might seem like forever, but try to keep a calm demeanor as you wait: smile, take a drink of water, and let students process the question. 

Be Transparent 

When posing challenging questions, clarify their purpose and how they align with learning objectives. Challenging questions should probe the material rather than put students on the spot, so remember to take things easy and slowly to minimize being interpreted as intimidating or threatening for new learners. Use these moments as opportunities to illustrate how formulating good, challenging questions can help drive productive inquiry in your discipline.

Facilitating Student Engagement and Participation

As an expert in your field, your role extends beyond delivering knowledge—it also involves fostering active student engagement. Once you’ve laid the groundwork and introduced foundational concepts, step back and let the students take the lead. Students learn best when they are actively doing the speaking, thinking, analyzing, criticizing, and experimenting. Give them as much time to do that as you can, and intervene with guiding questions, connections to previous points, or perspectives to bring students back to the session objectives. 

Balancing Participation in the Classroom

It’s common to have a few students in every section who rarely participate, while others might dominate discussion. In both cases, it’s good practice to approach students outside of class and speak to them individually, either immediately after section, in office hours, or via email. 

For quieter students, ask how you can support their participation or if they prefer alternative engagement methods, such as online discussions, emailed questions, or blog reflections. Consult UDL for additional strategies. 

For more talkative students, express appreciation for their enthusiasm and interest while encouraging them to allow space for others. In class, you can use phrases like, “Let’s hear from someone else.” If group norms include guidelines on balancing discussions, remind students of their importance. Encourage especially engaged students to visit office hours for further discussion, where you’ll have more time to talk.

In labs, you can ensure all students contribute by assigning and rotating roles. Regardless of your class type or format, establishing a friendly rapport with students early on will make it easier for you to handle these types of imbalances. 

It’s Okay to Say “I Don’t Know”

If faced with a question you don’t know the answer to, be honest and say, “I don’t know, but I’ll do my best to find out,” or “I don’t know, but we can find out together.” This models academic integrity and encourages a learning mindset. If relevant, turn the question into a class assignment, ensuring it’s addressed in the next session. 

Format-Specific Facilitation Tips

How you facilitate a class session will vary depending on the lesson’s format. Whether you’re leading a discussion, writing down new vocabulary on the board, or guiding students in a lab, each format presents unique opportunities and challenges. Many lessons benefit from incorporating and switching between multiple formats, keeping students engaged and the session dynamic. This approach also aligns well with UDL because it keeps learning active and tailored to different talents and interests.

In this section, we’ll explore strategies for effectively engaging students across different teaching formats.

Facilitating Discussions

In discussion-based classes, encourage student participation by asking open-ended questions that prompt them to build on each other’s ideas. Techniques like think-pair-share give students time to reformulate their thoughts before contributing to the discussion.

Be mindful of how often you intervene in these groups, interrupt discussions, or answer questions before students have a chance to think and respond; research shows that more active discussion takes place when instructors foster discussion, rather than act as arbiters between students (Cazden, 1986; Mehan, 1979; Wells, 1993). 

You can facilitate discussions between students by incorporating different ways of thinking and talking about your course material. These can include small-group discussions, where groups of 2-4 students get together; partner discussions, with only 2 students; seminar-style discussions, common in literature courses where small classroom sizes (10-18 students) allow the group to discuss the course material while sitting around a table; concrete examples, where groups of students can adopt more hands-on approaches to a chosen topic. For more information on facilitating group work, see Ch. 4.3 “Peer-to-peer learning and collaboration”.

Using the Board Effectively

In many courses, the board plays a central role in instruction, whether for outlining key arguments in a literary discussion or working through problem sets in a STEM course. Clear and intentional use of the board helps students follow your explanations and stay engaged with the material. Here are some tips for using the board effectively:

• Write legibly and in large print: Use neat, consistent handwriting that students in the back can read. Test your visibility by writing a few words on the board before class and checking from the farthest seat. 
• Write often: Even when explaining concepts verbally, writing key points, outlines, or diagrams reinforces the material and aids retention. 
• Verbalize while you write: As you write, read and explain what you’re doing aloud. This helps students who process information at different speeds or benefit from both auditory and visual cues. 
• Step back: Ensure all students have a clear view of the board. Stepping back also allows you to assess whether the board is too cluttered and needs reorganization.
• Erase strategically: Start each session with a clean board to minimize distractions. Avoid erasing content too frequently, as this can make it difficult for students to keep up with their notes.
• Manage board space: Anticipate how much space different sections of the lesson require. Try to avoid cramming information into small areas!
• Keep materials ready: Check that chalk, markers, and erasers are available and functional before class starts.
• Reference the board: When writing key points, quotations, or notes, point back to them frequently to reinforce connections between spoken explanations and visual content.
• Ask questions: Make board work interactive by asking students what should come next in an argument, how to analyze a passage, or what step to take in solving a problem. This transforms board work from a passive experience into an active learning process.

Effective board use is a critical skill in all types of courses across the university. Clear and thoughtful board work helps students follow along and engage more deeply with the material.

Using Slides Effectively

Slides are a powerful instructional tool, but they must be designed thoughtfully to maintain student focus. Check below for strategies to enhance learning through slides: 

• Keep slides uncluttered: Avoid excessive text or visuals and use bullet points or concise summaries to highlight key ideas. Try to limit your ideas to a maximum of six per slide. 
• Use visuals strategically: Diagrams, charts, historical images, and videos can illustrate complex concepts more effectively than text. Following the principles of UDL, incorporating multiple modes of representation benefits all learners. Ensure each visual directly supports the lesson’s objectives.
• Break up content: Long lectures on slides can lead to disengagement. Incorporate interactive elements like questions, polls, or short activities to sustain attention. For example, ask students to interpret a historical document, predict an outcome in a literary analysis, or respond to a discussion question.
• Highlight key information: Use colors, bold fonts, or highlighting to draw attention to essential  concepts, making it easier for students to follow along and take notes.
• Ask questions: Just as with board work, posing questions during a slide-based lecture keeps students actively involved. Ask them to analyze a visual, connect new information to previous lessons, or apply a concept in real-time. This keeps students thinking critically about the material and actively participating in the learning process. 
• Provide clear structure and flow: Well-organized slides serve as a roadmap for the session. Use section headers to signal transitions between topics and include an agenda slide at the beginning; this will help students follow the lesson’s progression. Use summary slides at the end of your presentation to reinforce key takeaways.
• Make slides accessible: Use high-contrast colors, large fonts, and clear visuals to ensure readability. Consider sharing slides before or after class to help students focus on understanding rather than rushing to take notes. More on accessible slide design can be found in the Resources section of this chapter. 

Good slide design goes beyond presenting information—it’s about creating an interactive and visually engaging experience. By keeping slides clear, interactive, and accessible, you can make your slide presentations a powerful learning tool.

Teaching in the Lab

Working and teaching in a lab can be very different from other types of discussion or review sections because instructors have to balance hands-on learning with guiding students through experimental procedures that encourage active participation and critical thinking. Below, you’ll find some tips for effective teaching in a lab environment:

• Be prepared: Make sure the equipment is working and ready to use before the lab session begins. Test the equipment, set up any necessary demonstrations in advance, and review safety protocols. Being well-prepared minimizes disruptions and ensures that students can focus on learning rather than logistical issues.
• Demonstrate procedures: Walk students through key steps before they begin, explaining each step’s purpose. Encourage students to ask questions during the demonstration to clarify their understanding.
• Encourage participation: Assign and rotate roles within lab groups so everyone has the opportunity to engage with different aspects of the experiment. 
• Ask questions: Ask thoughtful questions like, “Why do you think this result happened?” or “What if we changed this variable?” to encourage critical thinking. 
• Facilitate troubleshooting: When issues arise, guide students through problem-solving instead of fixing things for them. Help them identify errors and explore solutions.
• Emphasize safety: Monitor safety practices and maintain a clean, organized workspace to prevent accidents and ensure smooth lab operations. 
• Link theory to practice: Throughout the lab, remind students of how the experiment connects to broader concepts they’ve learned in lectures or readings. This helps them see the relevance of the lab to the course and reinforces theoretical knowledge through hands-on application.
• Encourage reflection: End lab sessions with questions like, “What challenges did you face?” or “How do the results compare to your predictions?” to consolidate learning and build analytical skills. 

Teaching in the lab gives students a hands-on way to apply theory in practice. By guiding students thoughtfully through each step and encouraging active participation, you help them build practical skills and critical thinking. 

Summary

Leading a class session involves more than delivering content—it’s about creating an environment where students feel welcome to think, speak, and engage. By being intentional in your teaching practice and prioritizing active student participation, you help students take ownership of their learning and engage more fully with the material.

Works Cited

Cazden, C. B. (1986). Classroom discourse. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.) (pp. 432-464). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company

Mehan, H. (1979) ‘What time is it, Denise?”: Asking known information questions in classroom discourse, Theory Into Practice, 18:4, 285-294, http://doi.org/10.1080/00405847909542846 

Wells, G. (1993) Reevaluating the IRF sequence: A proposal for the articulation of theories of activity and discourse for the analysis of teaching and learning in the classroom. Linguistics and Education 5(1): 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0898-5898(05)80001-4