Teaching How-to: Chapter 5.2: Grades and Grading

Why We Grade

At its core, grading is a form of communication. This is because grades convey a range of information about students’ academic achievements to multiple audiences, including the students themselves, their instructors, and others beyond the classroom, like admissions committees at graduate schools and future employers. As an instructor, you can assign grades for several reasons:

• To give students feedback on their learning. What have they learned so far? Where have they demonstrated particular skill or insight? In what areas is there room for further growth?
• To give instructors insight into their teaching. Which topics or skills have students mastered? What material may require further attention? Which teaching strategies have proved most and least effective?
• To articulate students’ academic track to external parties. What have students accomplished, and what potential do they have for continued success?

Grades allow you and your students to measure whether objectives have been met and, just as importantly, which new learning goals to set for the rest of the semester or future iterations of the course. In other words, we might think of grading as a tool for looking both backward and forward, not only measuring past learning, but motivating and informing future goals. 

Types of Grading 

Grading most often takes the form of traditional letter grades— A, B, C, and so on—which correspond to percentage scores. Some instructors, however, opt to use non-traditional grading techniques because they better serve their teaching goals and students’ needs. Each approach has pros and cons. Ultimately, your choice of grading system depends on your pedagogical priorities, the level of flexibility you have in the course design, as well as your overall teaching style. 

Traditional Grading

Letter grades (A to F) aligned with percentage ranges are for many the most traditional or familiar grading system. At their best, traditional grades can be legible, effective means of communicating learning outcomes: it’s widely understood that an A grade reflects high achievement, while an F indicates the need for further learning. Moreover, because students, administrators, and others broadly understand this grading system, instructors don’t need to dedicate large amounts of time to explaining how it works.

That said, traditional grading also poses drawbacks to be taken into account. Letter grades can feel like judgments, especially if students perceive them as verdicts on their academic worth rather than as snapshots of their progress toward learning goals. Additionally, when students feel pressured to achieve straight As, the desire for a high grade can overshadow the actual learning experience. Take care, and focus on the learning process rather than on grades whenever possible.

Ungrading

Ungrading is a teaching philosophy that aims to counter some limitations of the traditional letter-grade system. While there’s no one way to practice ungrading, this method typically involves de-emphasizing numerical or letter grades in favor of qualitative feedback. Approaches may include replacing grades with detailed narrative evaluations, engaging students in self-assessment or contract grading, or holding grading conferences to collaboratively or individually determine final grades. 

Each instructor’s approach to ungrading depends on their course context and pedagogical aims. In all cases, however, ungrading centers the learning process itself over high scores, encouraging reflection and revision as ways to learn. Ungrading can also be paired with other alternative grading strategies, some of which are described below. 

Contract Grading

In contract grading, instructors and students agree on what different levels of effort and achievement correspond to in terms of final grades. This model lets students play an active role in determining how much work they want to do for a class, the level of skill with which they’ll accomplish it, and what grade they’ll receive as a result. For example, a student who decides to complete the requirements for a B grade may do less work for the class than a student seeking an A grade. At the end of the day, students take on more responsibility for their learning outcomes.

Specifications Grading

Specifications grading uses pass/fail criteria within structured bundles of assignments, sort of like subscription tiers for a phone plan or online streaming service. Each assignment is graded pass-fail, which encourages students to focus on skill-building. Students can then opt into the tier of assignments that best corresponds to their learning goals and desired grade.

Foregrounding Equity in Grading

It’s essential to approach grading with intentionality and awareness because uncritical grading practices can perpetuate inequities through bias or inconsistency.  

Grading is inevitably shaped by implicit assumptions, systemic biases, and cultural norms. While often perceived as objective, research shows that subjective biases can influence how instructors assess student work. When you become aware of the potential for inequity, it becomes easier to combat. This section explores common grading biases as well as strategies for minimizing their impact on your grading.

Biases in Grading

Normative Assumptions in Grading

Grading systems often mirror dominant cultural and academic norms, which can reinforce inequities in student success. Asao Inoue’s work on writing assessment critiques how many traditional grading systems tend to reward styles of argumentation, organization, and grammar associated with white, Western discourse. Inoue argues that evaluating students based on these standards can disadvantage those from diverse linguistic and educational backgrounds (Inoue 2019).

Halo Bias

Halo bias is a phenomenon in which our first impressions of someone affect how we perceive and evaluate their work, for the worst and for the better. Positive impressions—such as a student’s participation in class or previous strong performance—may lead to inflated evaluations of up to half a letter grade (Malouff et al., 2013). You may find in your own teaching that unconscious impressions shape grading; you might grade written assignments more generously for students who participate actively in section, or give the benefit of the doubt to those who usually perform well and show up on time. Conversely, students who struggle early may be held to higher scrutiny later, even when their work improves. 

Implicit Bias

Implicit biases are a set of assumptions or beliefs about another person that often influence how we perceive and interact with them; most of the time, these assumptions are unconsciously ingrained from an early age, but follow us throughout our lives. These biases refer to the unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect decision-making and can affect grading in subtle ways—for example, when unfamiliar accents or cultural references influence how instructors evaluate student work, even when those aspects aren’t related to the assignment criteria. Research shows that students from underrepresented backgrounds receive harsher or less constructive feedback, even when their work is comparable in quality to their peers.

Rubrics: a Tool for Transparent Grading

Rubrics offer a structured way to combat bias and promote fairness in grading (Brookhart, 2013). By clearly defining evaluation criteria and performance levels, rubrics help ensure that all students are assessed according to the same standards, regardless of their identity, background, or previous performance. 

A rubric is a scoring guide that outlines specific expectations for an assignment, breaking down components like argument, evidence, organization, or technical accuracy, and describing what performance looks like at various levels, for example, “excellent,” “good,” “needs improvement.”  

Benefits of Using Rubrics

Rubrics provide clarity and transparency. When students understand expectations, they can more effectively self-assess, reduce anxiety, and engage with instructor feedback. 

Rubrics provide students with a detailed breakdown of what constitutes strong, proficient, or still-developing work, and helps them align their efforts accordingly. A rubric serves as a roadmap, guiding students as they complete their work and helping them self-assess before submission. Additionally, rubrics help standardize grading, reducing the likelihood of bias and ensuring that all students are evaluated using the same criteria. This consistency is especially important when multiple instructors or teaching fellows grade the same assignment. 

Beyond grading, rubrics serve as feedback tools by highlighting strengths and pinpointing areas for improvement, making feedback more actionable. Instead of receiving a vague or overly general comment like “Needs better analysis,” students can see exactly which parts of their reasoning needed further work and can frame it comparatively to stronger assessment criteria. This makes grading more instructive, as students better understand where they excel and what they should work on for future assignments.

Designing an Effective Rubric

Rubrics are effective tools for equity when they’re thoughtfully designed and consistently applied. Here are some suggestions for designing your own rubric: 

1. Identify Key Criteria

Start by defining which skills or competencies the assignment is meant to assess and ensure they align with the course objectives. Keep your rubric focused on the most important elements: are you evaluating clarity of argument? Analytical depth? Integration of course readings? Narrowing your focus to the most important aspects of the assessment makes the rubric more coherent and manageable for you and your students.

2. Define Performance Levels with Measurable Language

For each criterion, use clear, specific language to differentiate between excellent, proficient, and developing work. Favor observable qualities—such as “presents a well-supported argument with clear evidence”—over vague descriptors like “good argument.” The more concrete your descriptions, the more students understand expectations, and the easier it will be for you to apply the rubric over time, reducing the influence of implicit bias.

3. Test, Share, and Revise

Once you’ve drafted your rubric, try using it to evaluate a sample assignment, either one from a past semester or a hypothetical example. Share the rubric with fellow instructors for input, and present it to students early on in the assignment process (ideally before they begin working) to guide their planning and revision. After the assignment has been graded, reflect on what worked and revise the rubric for future use.

Providing Feedback 

Feedback is often more impactful than the grade itself. Specific, actionable feedback helps students understand their strengths, identify areas of growth, and make meaningful revisions. 

As stated above, when providing feedback to your students, avoid offering vague comments like “confusing” or “needs more detail;” explain what made an argument unclear or suggest ways the student might strengthen their work. This supports students in revising and developing their skills over time.

At the same time, it’s important to realize that you don’t need to comment on everything. Focus on one or two areas that will most help the student grow. If you’re grading written work, for example, you might highlight a recurring grammatical pattern (sometimes known as linguistic crutches) rather than pointing out every isolated mistake. Balancing encouragement with constructive critique helps students remain motivated and engaged because feedback feels supportive rather than punitive.

Equitable Grading Toolbox

Designing an equitable grading system involves aligning assessments with learning objectives, ensuring transparency and mitigating bias. Below is a set of tools to help you approach grading equitably. While not every method fits every course, reflecting on these strategies can help you implement grading practices that are intentional, fair, and supportive of student learning.

Before You Grade: Setting Clear Expectations

• Define Success: Align assessments with clear learning objectives. Clarify whether you’re evaluating student knowledge, skills, or both.  
• Develop Rubrics: Use rubrics to set transparent expectations and maintain grading consistency. If you’re part of a teaching team, collaborate with instructors to ensure fairness across sections. 
• Provide Examples: If possible, share sample assignments and explain why they meet or fall short of expectations. This demystifies grading and helps students understand what a strong response looks like.
• Prepare Students: Use low-stakes, formative assessments early on to identify learning needs and areas for growth. Structure assignments to scaffold learning, gradually building toward larger graded assessments.

While You Grade: Reducing Bias & Ensuring Fairness

• Anonymize Grading: If the assignment doesn’t require personalized feedback, consider using anonymous grading to minimize implicit and halo bias.
• Be Mindful of Bias: Where anonymity isn’t feasible, be aware of how your perceptions may influence evaluation. 
• Grade by Question: Grading all responses to Question 1 before moving on to Question 2 helps maintain consistency across responses.
• Check for Consistency: Periodically review graded work to ensure similar work receives similar feedback. 
• Vary Grading Order: If you’re grading the same assignment for a large number of students, consider mixing up the order in which you assess or even blindly grading their work without knowing whose it is. This helps minimize unconscious bias and ensures that students graded later in the process receive the same level of attention as those graded first. 
• Take Breaks: Grading fatigue can impact focus, consistency, and patience, especially during long sessions. Taking short breaks can help reset your attention, reduce frustration, and ensure that each student’s work receives thoughtful and fair evaluation.
• Keep a Record: Save comments on student work for your own reference, especially for major assignments or areas where students tend to struggle. Maintaining a record helps ensure consistency and transparency, especially if students later have questions about their grades. You might also want to consider keeping private notes on grading decisions or patterns you notice, which can help you refine future assessments and provide more targeted support.

Returning Grades: Feedback & Student Engagement

• Frame Feedback as Growth: Instead of justifying a grade, focus on how students can improve. If possible, allow revisions or resubmissions.
• Delay Discussions: Require students to wait at least 24 hours before requesting a grade review. This cool-off period can encourage more reflective, productive discussions.
• Set Clear Policies: Communicate your regrade policies in advance and encourage students to submit requests in writing. If students seek a regrade, having them articulate their reasoning promotes reflection and supports consistent and systematic grading decisions.

As you design your grading approach, make sure it not only aligns with your pedagogical values and learning objectives but also evaluates students based on demonstrated knowledge and skills. The strategies outlined here are not a checklist, but a set of options—choose the ones that best fit your course structure, teaching philosophy, and student needs.

Summary

Your grading practices should reflect what you most want students to learn and achieve in your course. While grading serves as a tool for assessment and communication, it’s also shaped by institutional norms, biases, and pedagogical philosophies. As an instructor, reflecting on your grading approach, whether rooted in traditional systems or based on qualitative alternatives, can help ensure that your assessments are fair and aligned with learning goals. 

Reflection Questions 

As you design and implement grading policies, consider the following questions to ensure your approach is equitable and aligns with your teaching goals: 

• What are you really assessing? Are your grading criteria aligned with your learning goals? Are you evaluating students based on content understanding, critical thinking, or specific skills? 
• Are your grading practices transparent? Have you clearly communicated your expectations to students through rubrics, guidelines, or examples? Do students understand how their work will be evaluated? 
• How do you make feedback meaningful? Are you providing feedback that is actionable and helps students improve? 
• Do you emphasize learning and growth rather than just final scores? Are grades in your course primarily a way to rank student performance, or are they part of an ongoing learning process?

Works Cited 

Inoue, A.B. (2019). Classroom Writing Assessment as an Antiracist Practice: Confronting White Supremacy in the Judgments of Language. Pedagogy 19(3), 373-404. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/733095 

Malouff, J. M., Emmerton, A. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2013). The Risk of a Halo Bias as a Reason to Keep Students Anonymous During Grading. Teaching of Psychology, 40(3), 233-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628313487425 

Brookhart, S. M. (2013). How to create and use rubrics for formative assessment and grading. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

Some material adapted from Poorvu Center “ITW Grading and Rubrics” workshop (Fall 2023)